Solar energy is one of the renewable energy sources that does not pollute, it is free, and available virtually everywhere in the world. For these reasons, over the years there have been many systems and methods that attempted to utilize solar energy and convert it into other usable forms of energy such as electricity. More recently, due to perceived shortages and higher prices of fossil fuels and due to pollution concerns, the interest has increased and the pace of development of technologies that utilize alternative energy sources (such as solar) has accelerated.
There are two main techniques developed to harvest solar energy. The first technique utilizes photovoltaic solar cells to directly convert solar energy into electricity. The photovoltaic solar cells have the advantage of small size, but are expensive to manufacture and the price per watt has leveled due to the high cost of the semiconductor substrate utilized to construct the photovoltaic solar cells. There are many types of designs and materials used to make photovoltaic solar cells which affect their cost and conversion efficiency. Current commercially available solar cells typically reach a starting efficiency around 18% which drops over time. The cells produce direct current (DC) that needs to be regulated, and for higher power applications typically the DC current also needs to be converted to AC current.
The second technique utilizes the heat (infrared radiation) associated with the solar energy. Assuming that the goal is to generate electrical energy, the solar radiation gets collected, concentrated, and utilized as a heat source for various systems that convert the heat into mechanical energy, which is then converted into electrical energy. Successful machines developed to convert heat into mechanical energy can be based on thermodynamic cycles. Mechanical energy produced by these machines is further converted into electrical energy by using rotating generators or linear generators. For example, in the case of a Stirling engine, heat (which can come from any heat source) is applied at one end of the engine and cooling is provided at a different location. The working fluid (gas), which is sealed inside the engine, goes through a cycle of heating (expansion) and cooling (contraction). The cycle forces a piston inside the engine to move and produce mechanical energy. When the heat source is solar, successful engine designs use an intermediate medium such as molten salt to more uniformly distribute the heat around the outside surface of the heating end of the engine.
With respect to the second technique, problems arise when the surface of the engine is exposed to large temperature gradients due to close proximity of the heat and cooling sources on the surface of the engine. For example, conventional engines can see extreme temperatures from day to night and along the length of the engine body with temperatures ranging from over 1000 degrees Fahrenheit to room temperature across the engine body. Disadvantageously, these types of engines face difficult material problems such as weld joint cracking and loss of material properties due to thermal cycling over time. Also, there are losses associated with heat radiation from the hot end of these types of engines leading to inefficiency.
Piezoelectricity is the ability of some materials (notably crystals and certain ceramics) to generate an electric potential in response to applied mechanical stress. This can take the form of a separation of electric charge across the crystal lattice. If the material is not short-circuited, the applied charge induces a voltage across the material. Direct piezoelectricity of some substances like quartz can generate potential differences of thousands of volts.